Mun or Munism (also called Bongthingism) is the traditional polytheistic, animist, shamanistic and syncretic religion of the Lepcha people. It predates the 7th century Lepcha conversion to Lamaistic Buddhism, and since that time, the Lepcha have practiced it together with Buddhism. Since the arrival of Christian missionaries in the nineteenth century, Mun traditions have been followed alongside that religion as well. The traditional religion permits incorporation of Buddha and Jesus Christ as deities, depending on household beliefs.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
The exonym "Mun" derives from the traditional belief in spirits called mun or mung. Together with bongthing (also bungthing or bóngthíng), mun comprise a central element in the religion. These terms are also used to describe the shaman priesthood that officiates the respective spirits.[1][2][7]
The Mun religion and its priesthood are in decline.[8] Conversion to other religions is attributed to economic pressure, as traditional practices are immensely expensive to the ordinary practitioner.[1] It has, however, regained interest among Lepcha as ecological encroachment becomes a growing concern.[2] The environment is so deeply intertwined with Mun beliefs that religious leaders have offered direct opposition to development in areas including the Rathong Chu and Teesta Rivers.[9]
- ^ a b c Hamlet Bareh, ed. (2001). Encyclopaedia of North-East India: Sikkim. Encyclopaedia of North-East India. Vol. 7. Mittal Publications. pp. 284–86. ISBN 8170997879.
- ^ a b c Torri, Davide (2010). "10. In the Shadow of the Devil. traditional patterns of Lepcha culture reinterpreted". In Fabrizio Ferrari (ed.). Health and Religious Rituals in South Asia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 149–156. ISBN 978-1136846298.
- ^ Barbara A. West, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Facts on File library of world history. Infobase Publishing. p. 462. ISBN 978-1438119137.
- ^ Timothy L. Gall; Jeneen Hobby, eds. (2009). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life: Asia and Oceania. Vol. 4 (2, revised ed.). Gale. p. 560. ISBN 978-1414448923.
- ^ Kumar Suresh Singh; Ranju R. Dhamala (1993). Kumar Suresh Singh (ed.). Sikkim. People of India. Vol. 39. Anthropological Survey of India, Seagull Books. pp. 99–100. ISBN 8170461200.
- ^ Kaushik, P. K (2007). Sustainable Tribal Culture in India. Pinnacle Technology. p. 17. ISBN 978-1618202079.
- ^ de Nebesky-Wojkowitz, René (1976). Tibetan Religious Dances: Tibetan Text and Annotated Translation of the ʼChams Yig. Religion and Society. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter. p. 22. ISBN 902797621X.
- ^ Das, Amal Kumar (1978). The Lepchas of West Bengal. Editions Indian. pp. 12, 193–97.
- ^ Little, Kery (2012). "Sanctity, Environment, and Protest: A Lepcha Tale". In Doma T Bhutia (ed.). Independent People's Tribunal on Dams, Environment and Displacement. Socio Legal Information Cent. pp. 84–93. ISBN 978-8189479817.