Theory of mind

In psychology, theory of mind refers to the capacity to understand other people by ascribing mental states to them. A theory of mind includes the knowledge that others' beliefs, desires, intentions, emotions, and thoughts may be different from one's own.^[1] Possessing a functional theory of mind is crucial for success in everyday human social interactions. People utilize a theory of mind when analyzing, judging, and inferring others' behaviors. The discovery and development of theory of mind primarily came from studies done with animals and infants.^[2] Factors including drug and alcohol consumption, language development, cognitive delays, age, and culture can affect a person's capacity to display theory of mind. Having a theory of mind is similar to but not identical with having the capacity for empathy^[3] or sympathy.

It has been proposed that deficits in theory of mind can occur in people with autism,^[5] anorexia nervosa,^[6] schizophrenia, dysphoria, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,^[7] cocaine addiction,^[8] and brain damage caused by alcohol's neurotoxicity.^[9]^[10] Neuroimaging shows that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), the precuneus, and the amygdala are associated with theory of mind tasks. Patients with frontal lobe or temporoparietal junction lesions find some theory of mind tasks difficult. One's theory of mind develops in childhood as the prefrontal cortex develops. It has been argued that children in a culture of collectivism develop knowledge access earlier and understand diverse beliefs later than Western children in a culture of individualism.^[11]

^ Apperly IA, Butterfill SA (2009). "Do humans have two systems to track beliefs and belief-like states?". Psychological Review. 116 (4): 953–970. doi:10.1037/a0016923. PMID 19839692.
^ Cite error: The named reference Baron-Cohen, S. 1991 pp. 233-251 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Völlm BA (1 January 2006). "Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study in a nonverbal task". NeuroImage. 29 (1): 90–98. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.022. ISSN 1053-8119. PMID 16122944. S2CID 6659365.
^ Gernsbacher MA, Yergeau M (9 December 2019). "Empirical failures of the claim that autistic people lack a theory of mind". Archives of Scientific Psychology. 7 (1). American Psychological Association: 102–118. doi:10.1037/arc0000067. ISSN 2169-3269. PMC 6959478. PMID 31938672. Supporting documentation: Gernsbacher MA (2018). "Critical Review of Autism and Theory and Mind: A Tech Report". Open Science Framework. doi:10.17605/OSF.IO/3R2QY.
^ See the review and meta-analyses by Morton Ann Gernsbacher regarding many failed replications of classic theory of mind studies^[4]
^ Bora E, Köse S (18 July 2016). "Meta-analysis of theory of mind in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: A specific İmpairment of cognitive perspective taking in anorexia nervosa?". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 49 (8): 739–740. doi:10.1002/eat.22572. hdl:11343/291969. ISSN 0276-3478. PMID 27425037.
^ Korkmaz B (May 2011). "Theory of mind and neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood". Pediatric Research. 69 (5 Pt 2). New York City: Springer Nature: 101R–8R. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e318212c177. PMID 21289541. S2CID 2675335.
^ Sanvicente-Vieira B, Kluwe-Schiavon B, Corcoran R, Grassi-Oliveira R (1 March 2017). "Theory of Mind Impairments in Women With Cocaine Addiction". Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 78 (2). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University: 258–267. doi:10.15288/jsad.2017.78.258. PMID 28317506.
^ Uekermann J, Daum I (May 2008). "Social cognition in alcoholism: a link to prefrontal cortex dysfunction?". Addiction. 103 (5). London, England: Wiley-Blackwell: 726–35. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02157.x. PMID 18412750.
^
- Ieong HF, Yuan Z (April 2018). "Emotion recognition and its relation to prefrontal function and network in heroin plus nicotine dependence: a pilot study". Neurophotonics. 5 (2). Bellingham, Washington: SPIE: 025011. doi:10.1117/1.NPh.5.2.025011. PMC 5993953. PMID 29901032.
- Gernsbacher MA, Yergeau M (2019). "Empirical Failures of the Claim That Autistic People Lack a Theory of Mind". Archives of Scientific Psychology. 7 (1): 102–118. doi:10.1037/arc0000067. ISSN 2169-3269. PMC 6959478. PMID 31938672.
^ Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[1] Apperly IA, Butterfill SA (2009). "Do humans have two systems to track beliefs and belief-like states?". Psychological Review. 116 (4): 953–970. doi:10.1037/a0016923. PMID 19839692.

[Baron-Cohen,_S._1991_pp._233-251-2] Cite error: The named reference Baron-Cohen, S. 1991 pp. 233-251 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[3] Völlm BA (1 January 2006). "Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study in a nonverbal task". NeuroImage. 29 (1): 90–98. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.022. ISSN 1053-8119. PMID 16122944. S2CID 6659365.

[4] Gernsbacher MA, Yergeau M (9 December 2019). "Empirical failures of the claim that autistic people lack a theory of mind". Archives of Scientific Psychology. 7 (1). American Psychological Association: 102–118. doi:10.1037/arc0000067. ISSN 2169-3269. PMC 6959478. PMID 31938672. Supporting documentation: Gernsbacher MA (2018). "Critical Review of Autism and Theory and Mind: A Tech Report". Open Science Framework. doi:10.17605/OSF.IO/3R2QY.

[3-5] See the review and meta-analyses by Morton Ann Gernsbacher regarding many failed replications of classic theory of mind studies^[4]

[6] Bora E, Köse S (18 July 2016). "Meta-analysis of theory of mind in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: A specific İmpairment of cognitive perspective taking in anorexia nervosa?". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 49 (8): 739–740. doi:10.1002/eat.22572. hdl:11343/291969. ISSN 0276-3478. PMID 27425037.

[pmid21289541-7] Korkmaz B (May 2011). "Theory of mind and neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood". Pediatric Research. 69 (5 Pt 2). New York City: Springer Nature: 101R–8R. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e318212c177. PMID 21289541. S2CID 2675335.

[8] Sanvicente-Vieira B, Kluwe-Schiavon B, Corcoran R, Grassi-Oliveira R (1 March 2017). "Theory of Mind Impairments in Women With Cocaine Addiction". Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 78 (2). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University: 258–267. doi:10.15288/jsad.2017.78.258. PMID 28317506.

[pmid18412750-9] Uekermann J, Daum I (May 2008). "Social cognition in alcoholism: a link to prefrontal cortex dysfunction?". Addiction. 103 (5). London, England: Wiley-Blackwell: 726–35. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02157.x. PMID 18412750.

[10] 
Ieong HF, Yuan Z (April 2018). "Emotion recognition and its relation to prefrontal function and network in heroin plus nicotine dependence: a pilot study". Neurophotonics. 5 (2). Bellingham, Washington: SPIE: 025011. doi:10.1117/1.NPh.5.2.025011. PMC 5993953. PMID 29901032.
Gernsbacher MA, Yergeau M (2019). "Empirical Failures of the Claim That Autistic People Lack a Theory of Mind". Archives of Scientific Psychology. 7 (1): 102–118. doi:10.1037/arc0000067. ISSN 2169-3269. PMC 6959478. PMID 31938672.

[11] Ieong HF, Yuan Z (April 2018). "Emotion recognition and its relation to prefrontal function and network in heroin plus nicotine dependence: a pilot study". Neurophotonics. 5 (2). Bellingham, Washington: SPIE: 025011. doi:10.1117/1.NPh.5.2.025011. PMC 5993953. PMID 29901032.

[12] Gernsbacher MA, Yergeau M (2019). "Empirical Failures of the Claim That Autistic People Lack a Theory of Mind". Archives of Scientific Psychology. 7 (1): 102–118. doi:10.1037/arc0000067. ISSN 2169-3269. PMC 6959478. PMID 31938672.

[:3-11] Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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Theory of mind

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