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Colonialism

A factory entrepôt, a basic example of colonialism illustrating its different elements, hierarchies and impact on the land and people (the Dutch V.O.C. factory in Hugli-Chuchura, Bengal, in 1665)

Colonialism is the exploitation of people and of resources by a foreign group.[1][2][3][4][5] Colonizers monopolize political power and hold conquered societies and their people to be inferior to their conquerors in legal, administrative, social, cultural, or biological terms.[6][7] While frequently advanced as an imperialist regime, colonialism can also take the form of settler colonialism, whereby colonial settlers invade and occupy territory to permanently replace an existing society with that of the colonizers, possibly towards a genocide of native populations.[8][9]

Colonialism developed as a concept describing European colonial empires of the modern era, which spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I.[10] European colonialism employed mercantilism and chartered companies, and established coloniality, which keeps the colonized socio-economically othered and subaltern through modern biopolitics of sexuality, gender, race, disability and class, among others, resulting in intersectional violence and discrimination.[11][12] Colonialism has been justified with beliefs of having a civilizing mission to cultivate land and life, based on beliefs of entitlement and superiority, historically often rooted in the belief of a Christian mission.

Because of this broad impact different instances of colonialism have been identified from around the world and in history, starting with when colonization was developed by developing colonies and metropoles, the base colonial separation and characteristic.[8]

Decolonization, which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975.[13][14] Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development,[15][16][17] regime types,[18][19] and state capacity.[20][21] Some academics have used the term neocolonialism to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period.[22][23]

  1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Oster was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Webster was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Collins was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stanford was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ Rodney, Walter (2018). How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78873-119-5. OCLC 1048081465.
  6. ^ Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ a b McNamee, Lachlan (2023). Settling for Less: Why States Colonize and Why They Stop. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-23781-7.
  9. ^ Jacobs, Margaret D. (2009-07-01). White Mother to a Dark Race. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press. pp. 24, 81, 421, 430. ISBN 978-0-8032-1100-1. OCLC 268789976.
  10. ^ Philip T. Hoffman (2015). Why Did Europe Conquer the World?. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4008-6584-0.
  11. ^ Stoler, Ann Laura (1995-10-04). Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11319d6. ISBN 978-0-8223-7771-9.
  12. ^ Abay, Robel Afeworki; Soldatic, Karen. "Intersectional Colonialities: Embodied Colonial Violence and Practices of Resistance at the Axis of Disability, Race, Indigeneity, Class, and Gender". Routledge & CRC Press. Retrieved 2024-03-08.
  13. ^ Strang, David (1991). "Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500-1987". International Studies Quarterly. 35 (4): 429–454. doi:10.2307/2600949. ISSN 0020-8833. JSTOR 2600949.
  14. ^ Strang, David (1990). "From Dependency to Sovereignty: An Event History Analysis of Decolonization 1870-1987". American Sociological Review. 55 (6): 846–860. doi:10.2307/2095750. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2095750.
  15. ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". American Economic Review. 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.1257/aer.91.5.1369. ISSN 0002-8282.
  16. ^ Nunn, Nathan (2009). "The Importance of History for Economic Development". Annual Review of Economics. 1 (1): 65–92. doi:10.1146/annurev.economics.050708.143336. ISSN 1941-1383.
  17. ^ Nunn, Nathan (2020). "The historical roots of economic development". Science. 367 (6485). doi:10.1126/science.aaz9986. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32217703.
  18. ^ Lee, Alexander; Paine, Jack (2024). Colonial Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009423526. ISBN 978-1-009-42353-3.
  19. ^ Gerring, John; Apfeld, Brendan; Wig, Tore; Tollefsen, Andreas Forø (2022). The Deep Roots of Modern Democracy: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009115223. ISBN 978-1-009-10037-3.
  20. ^ Herbst, Jeffrey (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control - Second Edition. Vol. 149 (REV - Revised, 2 ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16414-4. JSTOR j.ctt9qh05m.
  21. ^ Ali, Merima; Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge; Jiang, Boqian; Shifa, Abdulaziz B (2018). "Colonial Legacy, State-building and the Salience of Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa". The Economic Journal. 129 (619): 1048–1081. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12595. hdl:2263/71163. ISSN 0013-0133.
  22. ^ Stanard, Matthew G. (2018). European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-119-13013-0.
  23. ^ Halperin, Sandra (2023-12-02). "Neocolonialism". Neocolonialism | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica. Britannica.
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