In Reformed theology, the Lord's Supper or Eucharist is a sacrament that spiritually nourishes Christians and strengthens their union with Christ. The outward or physical action of the sacrament is eating bread and drinking wine. Reformed confessions, which are official statements of the beliefs of Reformed churches, teach that Christ's body and blood are really present in the sacrament and that believers receive, in the words of the Belgic Confession, "the proper and natural body and the proper blood of Christ." The primary difference between the Reformed doctrine and that of Catholic and Lutheran Christians is that for the Reformed, this presence is believed to be communicated in a spiritual manner by faith rather than by oral consumption. The Reformed doctrine of real presence is called "pneumatic presence" (from pneuma, a Greek word for "spirit"; alternatively called "spiritual real presence" or "mystical real presence").
Early Reformed theologians such as John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger taught that Christ's person, including his body and blood, are presented to Christians who partake of it in faith.[2] This view of the real presence was formally formulated by both Calvin and Bullinger in the Consensus Tigurinus.[3] The historic Reformed confessions of faith, including the Second Helvetic Confession (Continental Reformed), Westminster Confession (Presbyterian), Thirty-Nine Articles (Anglican), and Savoy Declaration (Congregationalist), hold to the doctrine of real spiritual presence.[4]
The Reformed view of a real spiritual presence stands in contrast to the Roman Catholic belief in transubstantiation, that the substances of bread and wine of the Eucharist physically change into Christ's body and blood, as well as the Lutheran doctrine of the Eucharist that is based on Martin Luther's teaching of Christ's body being received orally in the elements of bread and wine through a sacramental union.[5]
Later Reformed orthodox theologians continued to teach views similar to that of Calvin and Bullinger.[2]
- ^ Mentzer 2013, p. 246.
- ^ a b Gerrish, Brian (11 November 2004). The Old Protestantism and the New. A&C Black. pp. 112–130. ISBN 978-0-567-08048-6.
But enough was said to put it beyond all dub that Bullinger moved beyond his teacher. God truly offers (praestat) what the sacraments symbolize (Art. 8). The reality is not separated from the signs, but Christ is received with his spiritual gifts (Art. 9). And so on. That Bullinger did not consent to such expressions merely for a political accommodation with Geneva, is proved by the use of similar language in the Second Helvetic Confession, in which he taught a sacramental union of sign and reality (Art. 19).
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Seeberg1905was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Elwell, Walter A. (May 2001). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker Academic. p. 990. ISBN 978-0-8010-2075-9.
- ^ Albrecht, James (1 May 2017). "How do Lutherans differ from other churches on the Lord's Supper?". Lutheran Spokesman. Retrieved 3 April 2025.