Back Spaans-Amerikaanse Vryheidsoorloë Afrikaans حروب استقلال أمريكا الإسبانية Arabic Guerres d'independencia hispanoamericanes AST Вайна за незалежнасць іспанскіх калоній у Амерыцы Byelorussian Borba za nezavisnost zemalja Latinske Amerike BS Guerres d'independència hispanoamericanes Catalan Hispanoamerické války za nezávislost Czech Spansk-amerikanske frihedskrig Danish Südamerikanische Unabhängigkeitskriege German Ισπανοαμερικανικοί πόλεμοι ανεξαρτησίας Greek
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| Spanish American wars of independence | |||||||||
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    From left to right, top to bottom: the Congress of Chilpancingo (1813), the Congress of Cúcuta (1821), the Crossing of the Andes (1817), the extent of the Spanish Empire on the eve of the conflict in 1810, according to the Cortes de Cádiz | |||||||||
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 Napoleonic Spain (1808-1813) preserved the integrity of the Spanish Empire. | |||||||||
The Spanish American wars of independence (Spanish: Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas) took place across the Spanish Empire during the early 19th century. The struggles in both hemispheres began shortly after the outbreak of the Peninsular War, forming part of the broader context of the Napoleonic Wars. The conflict unfolded between the royalists, those who favoured a unitary monarchy, and the patriots, those who promoted either autonomous constitutional monarchies or republics, separated from Spain and from each other. These struggles ultimately led to the independence and secession of continental Spanish America from metropolitan rule,[11][12] which, beyond this conflict, resulted in a process of Balkanization in Hispanic America.[13] Thus, the strict period of military campaigns ranges from the Battle of Chacaltaya (1809) in present-day Bolivia, to the Battle of Tampico (1829) in Mexico.[14][15][page needed]
These conflicts were fought both as irregular warfare and conventional warfare. Some historians claim that the wars began as localized civil wars,[16][page needed] that later spread and expanded as secessionist wars[17][18][page needed][19][20] to promote general independence from Spanish rule.[21] This independence led to the development of new national boundaries based on the colonial provinces, which would form the future independent countries that constituted contemporary Hispanic America during the early 19th century.[21] Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the 1898 Spanish–American War.
The conflict resulted in the dissolution of the Spanish monarchy and the creation of new states. The independence of Spanish America did not constitute an anticolonial movement.[22] The new republics immediately abandoned the formal system of the Inquisition and noble titles. In most of these new countries, slavery was not abolished, and racial classification and hierarchy were imposed. Total abolition did not come until the 1850s in most of the Latin American republics. A caste system, influenced by the scientific racism of the European Enlightenment, was maintained until the 20th century.[23] The Criollos of European descent born in the New World, and mestizos, of mixed Indigenous and European heritage, replaced Spanish-born appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a social structure that retained some of its traditional features culturally, if not legally. Slavery finally ended in all of the new nations. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions. The Spanish American independences had as a direct consequence the forced displacement of the royalist Spanish population that suffered a forced emigration during the war and later, due to the laws of Expulsion of the Spaniards from the new states in the Americas with the purpose of consolidating their independence.[24][page needed]
Events in Spanish America transpired in the wake of the successful Haitian Revolution and transition to independence in Brazil. Brazil's independence in particular shared a common starting point with that of Spanish America, since both conflicts were triggered by Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, which forced the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil in 1807. The process of Hispanic American independence took place in the general political and intellectual climate of popular sovereignty that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment that influenced all of the Atlantic Revolutions, including the earlier revolutions in the United States and France. A more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain triggered by the Cortes of Cadiz, concluding with the emergence of the new Spanish American republics in the post-Napoleonic world.
- ^ Owsley, Frank L.; Smith, Gene A. (1997). Filibusters and Expansionists: Jeffersonian Manifest Destiny, 1800–1821.
This study examines American attempts to take Florida and Texas away from Spain during the administrations of Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. Admitting that their subject has been covered in various works, the authors promise to provide a comprehensive account of Gulf Coast expansionism and show that it is essentially the same as the later phenomenon known as Manifest Destiny. One can learn much from this description of events and episodes hitherto not well known. For example, there is the attempt of the Mexican patriot Jose Bernardo Maxililiano de Lara Gutierrez to liberate Texas from Spain in the wake of the failed Hidalgo Revolution. Secretary of State James Monroe supported Gutierrez's invasion of Mexico in 1812. West Point-trained former U.S. Army officer Augustus William Magee led the small insurgent army; and a significant number of its troops were American citizens. At about the same time, President Madison was instructing former governor of Georgia George Mathews to negotiate with Spanish officials in Florida about turning that colony over to the United States. When diplomacy failed, in a move that foreshadowed Andrew...
- ^ Meade, Teresa (2016). A History of Modern Latin America 1800 To The Present. Wiley. p. 78.
- ^ Robertson, William Spence (1941). Russia and the Emancipation of Spanish America, 1816–1826.
- ^ Struggle for Freedom. Rex Bookstore. 2008. ISBN 978-971-23-5045-0.
- ^ El Trienio Liberal Revolución e independencia (1820-1823). Los Libros De La Catarata. 2020. ISBN 978-84-9097-968-6.
- ^ Historia de la Humanidad. Editorial Larousse. Chapter: "Los inicios del siglo XIX". Page 31, Year 2005, Santiago de Chile.
- ^ Archer, Christon I. (2000). The Wars of Independence in Spanish America. Wilmington, DE: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-8420-2469-3.
- ^ Gral. Div. (R) Evergisto de Vergara. "The Eastern Front: Rivadavia and the War against Brazil in 1827." Archived May 15, 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Institute for Strategic Studies of Buenos Aires (IEEBA). August 2006. Quote: "Y fue una gran guerra civil, porque en Ibero América -para la época de las Guerras por la Independencia- había menos de 50.000 soldados españoles, de los cuales 20.000 nunca salieron de Cuba. Luego, en el proceso de las guerras por la independencia, nunca participaron más de 30.000 españoles. Por ejemplo, en Ayacucho, la última de las batallas por la independencia, menos del 20% de las tropas eran españoles, el resto eran nativos. Los nativos de Ibero América que murieron durante estas guerras fueron aproximadamente 35.000. Fueron verdaderas guerras civiles, y por lo tanto, dejaron mucho más destrucción y rencores."
- ^ "Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century".
- ^ Silvio Arturo Zavala (1971). Revista de historia de América. Numbers 69-70. Mexico City: Pan American Institute of Geography and History, p. 303. "Para el primero, de 1400000 habs. que la futura Colombia tendría en 1809 (entre ellos 78000 negros esclavos), (...) mortaldad que él mismo señala a tal guerra (unos 400 000 muertos para la Gran Colombia, entre ellos, 250 000 venezolanos)."
- ^ Canal, Jordi (2006). "Civil War and Counter-Revolution in Spain and the Southern Europe on XIX Century". Ler História. 51. Archived from the original on 1 February 2024. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
- ^ Peire, Jaime (2014). "El Río de la Plata y las Cortes de Cádiz: ¿un juego de máscaras?". Revista Venezolana de Análisis de Coyuntura. Universidad Central de Venezuela Venezuela (in Spanish). XX: 35.
- ^ Mazzuca, Sebastian (2021). Latecomer State Formation Political Geography and Capacity Failure in Latin America. Yale University Press.
- ^ Rufino Blanco-Fombona (1920). Fundación de la República - Biblioteca Ayacucho nº 61. p. 67.
- ^ Lara, Maria (2018). Breviario de historia de España.
- ^ Kinsbruner, Jay (1994). Independence in Spanish America: Civil Wars, Revolutions, and Underdevelopment. University of New Mexico press. ISBN 978-0826321770.
- ^ Strachan, Hew (2011). The Changing Character of War. p. 206.
- ^ Kinsbruner, Jay (2000). Independence in Spanish America: Civil Wars, Revolutions, and Underdevelopment.
- ^ Lu, Jing (2018). On State Secession from International Law Perspectives. p. 14.
- ^ Rospide, Santiago Miguel (2021). "¿Por qué los españoles rechazaron la propuesta del General San Martín de coronar un príncipe Borbón en el Perú?". ReDiU, Revista Digital Universitaria del Colegio Militar de la Nación.
- ^ a b Hamnett, Brian R. (May 1997). "Process and Pattern: A Re-examination of the Ibero-American Independence Movements, 1808–1826". Journal of Latin American Studies. 29 (2): 279–328. doi:10.1017/s0022216x97004719 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 0022-216X. S2CID 145479092.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) - ^ Rodriguez, Jaime (2009). "The Hispanic Revolution: Spain and America, 1808-1826". História: Política e Revolução, 1945-1975. 57.
- ^ Klein (1986). African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean.
- ^ Ruiz de Gordejuela Urquijo, Jesús (2006). La expulsión de los españoles de México y su destino incierto, 1821-1836 (in Spanish). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos & Universidad de Sevilla. ISBN 978-840-0084-67-7.