Xiongnu

Xiongnu
3rd century BC–1st century AD
Territory of the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BC (before the Han–Xiongnu War of 133 BC – 89 AD): it includes Mongolia, East Kazakhstan, East Kyrgyzstan, South Siberia, and parts of northern China such as Western Manchuria, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and Gansu.[1][2][3][4]
CapitalOtuken[5][6] (around present-day Khangai Mountains, Arkhangai)[7]
Common languagesUnknown
Religion
Shamanism, Tengrism
Demonym(s)Xiongnu
GovernmentTribal confederation
Chanyu 
• 220 - 209 BCE
Touman
• 209 - 174 BCE
Modu
• 174 - 161 BCE
Laoshang
• 46 AD
Wudadihou
Historical eraAntiquity
• Established
3rd century BC
• Disestablished
1st century AD
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Slab Grave Culture
Donghu people
Yuezhi
Sakas
Ordos culture
Han dynasty
Xianbei state
Rouran Khaganate
Tocharians
First Turkic Khaganate
Xiongnu
Chinese匈奴

The Xiongnu (Chinese: 匈奴; pinyin: Xiōngnú,[10] [ɕjʊ́ŋ.nǔ]) were a tribal confederation[11] of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209 BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire.[12]

After overthrowing their previous overlords,[13] the Yuezhi, the Xiongnu became the dominant power on the steppes of East Asia, centred on the Mongolian Plateau. The Xiongnu were also active in areas now part of Siberia, Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Xinjiang. Their relations with adjacent Chinese dynasties to the south-east were complex—alternating between various periods of peace, war, and subjugation. Ultimately, the Xiongnu were defeated by the Han dynasty in a centuries-long conflict, which led to the confederation splitting in two, and forcible resettlement of large numbers of Xiongnu within Han borders. During the Sixteen Kingdoms era, as one of the "Five Barbarians", they founded the dynastic states of Han-Zhao, Northern Liang and Hu Xia in northern China.

Attempts to associate the Xiongnu with the nearby Sakas and Sarmatians were once controversial. However, archaeogenetics has confirmed their interaction with the Xiongnu, and also their relation to the Huns. The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses, because only a few words, mainly titles and personal names, were preserved in the Chinese sources. The name Xiongnu may be cognate with that of the Huns and/or the Huna,[14][15][16] although this is disputed.[17][18] Other linguistic links—all of them also controversial—proposed by scholars include Turkic,[19][20][21][22][23][24] Iranian,[25][26][27] Mongolic,[28] Uralic,[29] Yeniseian,[17][30][31][32] or multi-ethnic.[33]

  1. ^ Coatsworth, John; Cole, Juan; Hanagan, Michael P.; Perdue, Peter C.; Tilly, Charles; Tilly, Louise (16 March 2015). Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-316-29777-3.
  2. ^ Atlas of World History. Oxford University Press. 2002. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-19-521921-0.
  3. ^ Fauve, Jeroen (2021). The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 403. ISBN 978-3-8382-1518-1.
  4. ^ Hartley, Charles W.; Yazicioğlu, G. Bike; Smith, Adam T. (19 November 2012). The Archaeology of Power and Politics in Eurasia: Regimes and Revolutions. Cambridge University Press. p. 245, Fig 12.3. ISBN 978-1-139-78938-7.
  5. ^ "ASYA HUN DEVLETİ (BÜYÜK HUN İMPARATORLUĞU) (M.Ö. 220 – M.S.216 ) — Dijital Hoca".
  6. ^ "Türklerin tarihî başkenti: Ötüken - Avrasya'dan - Haber".
  7. ^ Feng, Li (30 December 2013). Early China: A Social and Cultural History. Cambridge University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-521-89552-1.
  8. ^ Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 匈 – 上古音系第一三千八百九十字 [匈 - The 13890th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網] (in Chinese). Rearranged by BYVoid.
  9. ^ Zheng Zhang (Chinese: 鄭張), Shang-fang (Chinese: 尚芳). 奴 – 上古音系第九千六百字 [奴 – The 9600th word of the Ancient Phonological System]. ytenx.org [韻典網] (in Chinese). Rearranged by BYVoid.
  10. ^ Gökalp, Ziya (2020). Türk Medeniyeti Tarihi. ISBN 9786054369461 – via Google Books.
  11. ^ "Xiongnu People". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2020-03-11. Retrieved 2015-07-25.
  12. ^ Di Cosmo 2004, p. 186.
  13. ^ Chase-Dunn, C.; Anderson, E. (18 February 2005). The Historical Evolution of World-Systems. Springer. p. 36-37. ISBN 978-1-4039-8052-6. "The primary focus of the new threat became the Xiongnu who emerged rather abruptly in the late 4th century B.C. initially subordinated to the Yuezhi, the Xiongnu overthrew the nomadic hierarchy while also escalating its attacks on Chinese areas."
  14. ^ Grousset 1970, pp. 19, 26–27.
  15. ^ Pulleyblank 2000, p. 17.
  16. ^ Schuessler 2014, pp. 257, 264.
  17. ^ a b Beckwith 2009, p. 404–405 notes 51–52.
  18. ^ Étienne de la Vaissière (15 November 2006). "Xiongnu". Encyclopedia Iranica online. Archived from the original on 2012-01-04.
  19. ^ Hucker 1975, p. 136.
  20. ^ Savelyev, Alexander; Jeong, Choongwon (10 May 2020). "Early nomads of the Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.18. hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-772B-4. PMC 7612788. PMID 35663512. S2CID 218935871. The predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic (Late Proto-Turkic, to be more precise)
  21. ^ Robbeets, Martine; Bouckaert, Remco (1 July 2018). "Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family". Journal of Language Evolution. 3 (2): 145–162. doi:10.1093/jole/lzy007. hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-E3E6-B. ISSN 2058-4571.
  22. ^ "Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties", Chinese Architecture, Princeton University Press, pp. 72–103, 14 May 2019, doi:10.2307/j.ctvc77f7s.11, S2CID 243720017, retrieved 2023-04-01Larousse, Éditions. "Turcs ou Turks - LAROUSSE". www.larousse.fr (in French). Retrieved 2023-04-01.
  23. ^ Book of Zhou, vol. 50.Henning 1948.
  24. ^ Sims-Williams 2004.Pritsak 1959.Hucker 1975, p. 136.Jinshu vol. 97 Four Barbarians - Xiongnu".Weishu, "vol. 102 Wusun, Shule, & Yueban" quote: "悅般國,…… 其先,匈奴北單于之部落也。…… 其風俗言語與高車同".Yuanhe Maps and Records of Prefectures and Counties vol. 4 quote: "北人呼駮馬為賀蘭.Kim, Hyun Jin (18 April 2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511920493. ISBN 978-0-511-92049-3.Du You. Tongdian. Vol. 200. "突厥謂駮馬為曷剌,亦名曷剌國。".Wink 2002, pp. 60–61.
  25. ^ Harmatta 1994, p. 488: "Their royal tribes and kings (shan-yü) bore Iranian names and all the Hsiung-nu words noted by the Chinese can be explained from an Iranian language of Saka type. It is therefore clear that the majority of Hsiung-nu tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language."
  26. ^ Bailey 1985, pp. 21–45.
  27. ^ Jankowski 2006, pp. 26–27.
  28. ^ Tumen D (February 2011). "Anthropology of Archaeological Populations from Northeast Asia" (PDF). Oriental Studies. 49. Dankook University Institute of Oriental Studies: 25, 27. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-29.
  29. ^ Di Cosmo 2004, p. 166.
  30. ^ Adas 2001, p. 88.
  31. ^ Vovin, Alexander (2000). "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal. 44 (1): 87–104. JSTOR 41928223.
  32. ^ 高晶一, Jingyi Gao (2017). "Quèdìng xià guó jí kǎitè rén de yǔyán wéi shǔyú hànyǔ zú hé yè ní sāi yǔxì gòngtóng cí yuán" 確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源 [Xia and Ket Identified by Sinitic and Yeniseian Shared Etymologies]. Central Asiatic Journal. 60 (1–2): 51–58. doi:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. JSTOR 10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. S2CID 165893686.
  33. ^ Geng 2005.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia · View on Wikipedia

Developed by Nelliwinne